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Cyanobacteria, microcystins and cylindrospermopsin in public drinking supply reservoirs of Brazil

Abstracts

Brazil has a history of blooms and contamination of freshwater systems by cyanobacterial toxins. The monitoring relevance of toxins from cyanobacteria in reservoirs for public supply is notorious given its high toxicity to mammals, included humans beings. The most recurrent toxins in Brazilian water bodies are microcystins (MC). However, the recent record of cylindrospermopsin (CYN) in northeastern Brazil, Pernambuco state, alerts us to the possibility that this could be escalating. This study reports occurrence of MC and CYN, quantified with ELISA, in 10 reservoirs, devoted to public drinking supply in northeastern Brazil. The composition and quantification of the cyanobacteria community associated with these water bodies is also presented. From 23 samples investigated for the presence of MC, and CYN, 22 and 8 out were positive, respectively. Considering the similarity of the cyanobacteria communities found in reservoirs from Pernambuco, including toxin-producing species associated to MC and CYN, we suggest that geographic spreading can be favored by these factors. These issues emphasize the need for increased monitoring of MC and CYN in drinking supply reservoirs in Brazil.

bloom; harmful algae; monitoring; toxin; water quality


O Brasil tem um histórico de florações e contaminações por toxinas de cianobactérias nos seus ecossistemas de água doce. A relevância do monitoramento de toxinas de cianobactérias em reservatórios de abastecimento público é notória, devido à sua alta toxicidade para mamíferos, inclusive seres humanos. As cianotoxinas mais recorrentes em corpos de água brasileiros são microcistinas (MC). No entanto, o registro recente de cilindrospermopsina (CYN) no nordeste, estado de Pernambuco, nos alerta para a possibilidade do aumento de novas ocorrências. Este estudo relata a ocorrência de MC e CYN, quantificadas por ELISA, em 10 reservatórios destinados ao abastecimento público do nordeste do Brasil. Também são apresentadas a composição e a quantificação da comunidade de cianobactérias associadas a estes corpos de água. Das 23 amostras investigadas, 22 e 8 foram positivas em relação, respectivamente, a MC e CYN. Considerando a similaridade das comunidades de cianobactérias encontradas nos reservatórios de Pernambuco e a presença de espécies potencialmente produtoras de MC e CYN, nós sugerimos que uma expansão geográfica possa ser favorecida por esses fatores. Estas questões enfatizam a necessidade de aumentar o monitoramento de MC e CYN em reservatórios de abastecimento público no Brasil.

floração; algas nocivas; monitoramento; toxinas; qualidade de água


INTRODUCTION

Toxins from cyanobacteria are known to be harmful agents to human and animal health (Carmichael 1994Carmichael WW. 1994. The Toxins of Cyanobacteria. Sci Am 270: 78-86., Jochimsen et al. 1998, Soares et al. 2006Soares RM, Yuan M, Servaites JC, Delgado A, Magalhães VF, Hilborn ED, Carmichael WW and Azevedo SMFO. 2006. Sub-lethal exposure from microcystins to renal insufficiency patients in Rio de Janeiro-Brazil. Environ Toxicol 2: 95-103.). Besides the high poisoning potential of these toxins, chronic effects in human populations due to long-term exposure to hepatic and neurotoxins have also been reported (Suganuma et al. 1988Suganuma M, Fujiki H, Suguri H, Yoshizawa S, Hirota M, Nakayasu M, Ojika M, Wakamatsu K, Yamada K and Sugimura T. 1988. Okadaic acid, an additional non-phorbol-12-tetradecanoate-13-acetate-type tumor promoter. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 85: 1768-1771., Falconer and Buckley 1989Falconer IR and Buckley TH. 1989. Tumors promotion by Microcystis sp., a blue-green alga occurring in water supplies. Med J Aust 150: 351-352., Falconer 1991Falconer IR. 1991. Tumor promotion and liver injury caused by oral consumption of Cyanobacteria. Environ Toxicol Water Qual 6: 177-184., 1996Falconer IR. 1996. Potential impact on human health of toxic cyanobacteria. Phycologia 35: 6-11., Nishiwaki-Matsushima et al. 1992Nishiwaki-Matsushima R, Ohta T, Nishiwaki S, Sugunuma M, Kohyama K, Ishikawa T, Carmichael WW and Fujiki H. 1992. Liver tumor promotion by the cyanobacterial cyclic peptide toxin microcystin-LR. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 118: 420-424., Carmichael 1994Carmichael WW. 1994. The Toxins of Cyanobacteria. Sci Am 270: 78-86., Ito et al. 1997Ito E, Kondo F, Terao K and Harada K-I. 1997. Neoplastic nodular formation in mouse liver induced by repeated intraperitoneal injections of microcystin-LR. Toxicon 35: 1453-1457., Ding et al. 1999Ding W-X, Shen H-M, Zhu H-G, Lee N-L and Ong C-N. 1999. Genotoxicity of Microcystic cyanobacteria extract of a water source in China. Mutat Res 442: 69-77., Cox et al. 2003Cox PA, Banack SA and Murch SJ. 2003. Biomagnification of cyanobacterial neurotoxins and neurodegenerative disease among the Chamorro people of Guam. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100: 13380-13383., Clark et al. 2007Clark SP, Davis MA, Ryan TP, Searfoss GH and Hooser SB. 2007. Hepatic gene expression changes in mice associated with prolonged sublethal microcystin exposure. Toxicol Pathol 35: 594-605.).

Microcystins (MC) are hepatotoxins produced by some species of theMicrocystis, Planktothrix andAnabaena/Dolichospermum genera, among others, which act by inflicting damage to cells from the liver and other organs (Soares et al. 2007Soares RM, Cagido VR, Ferraro RB, Meyer-Fernandes JR, Rocco PRM, Zin WA and Azevedo SMFO. 2007. Effects of microcystin-LR on mouse lungs. Toxicon 50: 330-338.), possibly leading the organisms to death by hemorrhagic shock (Mackintosh et al. 1990MacKintosh C, Beattie KA, Klump S, Cohen P and Codd GA. 1990. Cyanobacterial microcystin-LR is a potent and specific inhibitor of protein phosphatases 1 and 2A from both mammalians and higher plants. FEBS Lett 264: 187-192.,Hooser et al. 1991Hooser SB, Beasley VR, Waite LL, Kuklenschmidt MS, Carmichael WW and Haschek WM. 1991. Actin filament alterations in rat hepatocytes induced in vivo and in vitro by microcystin-LR, a hepatotoxin from the blue-green algae Microcystis aeruginosa. Vet Pathol 28: 259-266.). Moreover, at sub-lethal doses, these toxins might act as tumor promoters (Ueno et al. 1996Ueno Y, Nagata S, Tsutsumi T, Hasegawa A, Watanabe MF, Park HD, Chen G-C, Chen G and Yu S-Z. 1996. Detection of microcystins, a blue-green algal hepatotoxin, in drinking water sampled in Haimen and Fusui, endemic areas of primary liver cancer in China, by highly sensitive immunoassay. Carcinogenesis 17: 1317-1321., Ding et al. 1999Ding W-X, Shen H-M, Zhu H-G, Lee N-L and Ong C-N. 1999. Genotoxicity of Microcystic cyanobacteria extract of a water source in China. Mutat Res 442: 69-77., Zhou et al. 2002Zhou L, Yu H and Chen K. 2002. Relationship between microcystin in drinking water and colorectal cancer. Biomed Environ Sci 15: 166-171.).

Cylindrospermopsin (CYN) is a tricyclic alkaloid produced byCylindrospermopsis (Ohtani et al. 1992Ohtani I, Moore RE and Runnegar MTC. 1992. Cylindrospermopsin, a potent hepatotoxin from the blue-green-alga Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii. J Am Chem Soc 114: 7941-7942., Berry and Lind 2010Berry JP and Lind O. 2010. First evidence of “paralytic shellfish toxins” and cylindrospermopsin in a Mexican freshwater system, Lago Catemaco, and apparent bioaccumulation of the toxins in “tegogolo” snails (Pomacea patula catemacensis). Toxicon 55: 930-938.),Aphanizomenon (Banker et al. 1997Banker R, Carmeli S, Hadas O, Teltsch B, Porat R and Sukenik A. 1997. Identification of cylindrospermopsin in Aphanizomenon ovalisporum (Cyanophyceae) isolated from Lake Kinneret, Israel. J Phycol 33: 613-616., Preußel et al. 2006), Umezakia (Harada et al. 1994Harada K-I, Ohtami I, Iwamoto K, Suzyuki M, Watanabe MF, Watanabe M and Terao K. 1994. Isolation of cylindrospermopsin from a cyanobacterium Umezakia natan and its screening method. Toxicon 32: 73-84.), Anabaena(Schembri et al. 2001Schembri MA, Neilan BA and Saint CP. 2001. Identification of genes implicated in toxin production in the cyanobacterium Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii. Environ Toxicol 16: 413-421., Spoof et al. 2006Spoof L, Berg KA, Rapala J, Lahti K, Lepisto L, Metcalf JS, Codd GA and Meriluoto J. 2006. First observation of cylindrospermopsin in Anabaena lapponica isolated from the boreal environment (Finland). Environ Toxicol 21: 552-560.) and Lyngbya(Seifert et al. 2007Seifert M, McGregor G, Eaglesham G, Wickramasinghe W and Shaw G. 2007. First evidence for the production of cylindrospermopsin and deoxy-cylindrospermopsin by the freshwater benthic cyanobacterium, Lyngbya wollei (Farlow ex Gornont) Speziale and Dyck. Harmful Algae 6: 73-80.). These are cytotoxins that irreversibly block protein synthesis, where the primary clinical symptoms are both hepatic and renal failure. They also act on tissues of the intestinal tract, vascular system and muscles (Terao et al. 1994Terao K, Ohmori S, Igarashi K, Ohtani I, Watanabe MF, Harada K-I, Ito E and Watanabe MF. 1994. Electron microscopic studies on experimental poisoning in mice induced by cylindrospermopsin isolated from blue-green alga Umezakia natans. Toxicon 32: 833-843., Falconer et al. 1999Falconer LR, Hardy SJ, Humpage AR, Froscio SM, Tozer GJ and Hawkins PR. 1999. Hepatic and renal toxicity of the blue-green alga (Cyanobacterium) Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii in a male swiss albino mice. Environ Toxicol 14: 143-150.,Seawright et al. 1999Seawright AA, Nolan CC, Shaw GR, Chiswell RK, Norris RL, Moore MR and Smith MJ. 1999. The oral toxicity for mice of the tropical cyanobacterium Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii (Woloszynska). Environ Toxicol 14: 135-142., Froscio et al. 2008Froscio SM, Humpage AR, Wickramasinghe W, Shaw G and Falconer IR. 2008. Interaction of the cyanobacterial toxin cylindrospermopsin with the eukaryotic protein synthesis system. Toxicon 51: 191-198.). Additionally, there are indications that CYN produces genotoxic, carcinogenic and mutagenic effects (Falconer and Humpage 2001Falconer IR and Humpage AR. 2001. Preliminary evidence for in vivo tumour initiation by oral administration of extracts of the blue-green alga Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii containing the toxin cylindrospermopsin. Environ Toxicol 16: 192-195., Saker et al. 2003Saker ML, Nogueira ICG, Vasconcelos VM, Neilan BA, Eaglesham GK and Pereira P. 2003. First report and toxicological assessment of the cyanobacterium Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii from Portuguese freshwaters. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 55: 243-250.). Following the first case of human intoxication provoked by CYN in Australia, 1979 (Hawkins et al. 1985Hawkins PR, Runnegar MTC, Jackson ARB and Falconer IR. 1985. Severe hepatotoxicity caused by the tropical cyanobacterium (Blue-Green Alga) Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii (Woloszynska) Seenaya et Subba Raju isolated from a domestic water supply reservoir. Appl Environ Microbiol 50: 1292-1295.), this toxin has been systematically found in other regions of the world (Carmichael et al. 2001Carmichael WW, Azevedo SMFOO, An JS, Molica RJR, Jochimsen EM, Lau S, Rinehart KL, Shaw GR and Eaglesham GK. 2001. Human fatalities from cyanobacteria, chemical and biological evidence for cyanotoxins. Environ Health Perspect 109: 663-668., Li et al. 2001Li R, Carmichael WW, Brittain S, Eaglesham GK, Shaw GR, Mahakhant A, Noparatnaraporn N, Yongmanitchai W, Kaya K and Watanabe MM. 2001. Isolation and identification of the cyanotoxin cylindrospermopsin and deoxy-cylindrospermopsin from a Thailand strain of Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii (Cyanobacteria). Toxicon 39: 973-980., Stirling and Quilliam 2001Stirling DJ and Quilliam MA. 2001. First report of the cyanobacterial toxin cylindrospermopsin in New Zealand. Toxicon 39: 1219-1222., Burns et al. 2002Burns J, Williams C and Chapman A. 2002. Cyanobacteria and their toxins in Florida surface waters. In: JOHNSON D and HARBISON RD (Eds), Proceedings of Health Effects of Exposure to Cyanobacteria Toxins. Saratoga: State of Science 13/14: 16-21., Chonudomkul et al. 2004Chonudomkul D, Yongmanitchai W, Theeragool G, Kawachi M, Kasai F, Kaya K and Watanabe MM. 2004. Morphology, genetic diversity, temperature tolerance and toxicity of Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii (Nostocales, Cyanobacteria) strains from Thailand and Japan. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 48: 345-355., Berry and Lind 2010Berry JP and Lind O. 2010. First evidence of “paralytic shellfish toxins” and cylindrospermopsin in a Mexican freshwater system, Lago Catemaco, and apparent bioaccumulation of the toxins in “tegogolo” snails (Pomacea patula catemacensis). Toxicon 55: 930-938.), including Brazil (Bittencourt-Oliveira et al. 2011aBittencourt-Oliveira MC, Piccin-Santos V, Kujbida P and Moura AN. 2011a. Cylindrospermopsin in water supply reservoirs in Brazil determined by immunochemical and molecular methods. J Water Resour Prot 3: 349-355.).

Blooms of toxic cyanobacteria have been recorded worldwide and have become more numerous in both fresh and marine water (Hudnell et al. 2008Hudnell KH, Dortch Q and Zenick H. 2008. An overview of the interagency, internation symposium on cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms (ISOC-HAB): advancing the scientific understanding of freshwater harmful algal blooms. In: HUDNELL KH (Ed), Cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms: State of the Science and Research Needs. Adv Exp Med Biol 619(XXIV): 1-16., Paerl and Huisman 2009Paerl HW and Huisman J. 2009. Climate change: a catalyst for global expansion of harmful cyanobacterial blooms. Eviron Microb Rep 1: 27-37., Paerl et al. 2011Paerl HW, Hall NS and Calandrino ES. 2011. Controlling harmful cyanobacterial blooms in a world experiencing anthropogenic and climatic-induced change. Sci Total Environ 409: 1739-1745., O'Neil et al. 2012O'Neil JM, Davis TW, Burford MA and Gobler CJ. 2012. The rise of harmful cyanobacteria blooms: The potential roles of eutrophication and climate change. Harmful Algae 14: 313-334.). Parallel to an increase in documentation regarding these events, new species have been found to be responsible for these toxins (Bormans et al. 2005Bormans M, Ford PW and Fabbro L. 2005. Spatial and temporal variability in cyanobacteria populations controlled by physical processes. J Plankton Res 27: 61-70., Cox et al. 2005, Richardson et al. 2007Richardson LL, Sekar R, Myers JL, Gantar M, Voss JD, Kaczmarsky L, Remily ER, Boyer GL and Zimba PV. 2007. The presence of the cyanobacterial toxin microcystin in black band disease of corals. FEMS Microbiol Lett 272: 182-187., Berry and Lind 2010Berry JP and Lind O. 2010. First evidence of “paralytic shellfish toxins” and cylindrospermopsin in a Mexican freshwater system, Lago Catemaco, and apparent bioaccumulation of the toxins in “tegogolo” snails (Pomacea patula catemacensis). Toxicon 55: 930-938., Sant'Anna et al. 2011Sant'Anna CL, Gama-Jr WA, Azevedo MTP and Komárek J. 2011. New morphospecies of Chamaesiphon (Cyanobacteria) from Atlantic rainforest, Brazil. Fottea 11: 25-30., Smith et al. 2011Smith FMJ, Wood SA, Van Ginkel R, Broady PA and Gaw S. 2011. First report of saxitoxin production by a species of the freshwater benthic cyanobacterium, Scytonema Agardh. Toxicon 57: 566-573.). As well, new occurrences of several toxins have been recorded in regions where they were historically thought not be present (O'Neil and Dennison 2005O'Neil J and Dennison WC. 2005. Lyngbya majuscule in Southeast Queensland. In: ABAL E and DENNISON WC (Eds), Healthy Waterways – Healthy catchments. Brisbane: South East Queensland Reginal Water Quality Strategy, Brisbane City Council, Australia, p.119-148., Paul et al. 2005Paul VJ, Thacker R, Banks K and Golubic S. 2005. Benthic cyanobacterial bloom impacts on the reefs of South Florida (Broward County, USA). Coral Reefs 24: 693-697., Berry and Lind 2010Berry JP and Lind O. 2010. First evidence of “paralytic shellfish toxins” and cylindrospermopsin in a Mexican freshwater system, Lago Catemaco, and apparent bioaccumulation of the toxins in “tegogolo” snails (Pomacea patula catemacensis). Toxicon 55: 930-938., Bittencourt-Oliveira et al. 2011aBittencourt-Oliveira MC, Piccin-Santos V, Kujbida P and Moura AN. 2011a. Cylindrospermopsin in water supply reservoirs in Brazil determined by immunochemical and molecular methods. J Water Resour Prot 3: 349-355., Smith et al. 2012Smith FMJ, Wood SA, Wilks T, Kelly D, Broady PA, Williamson W and Gaw S. 2012. Survey of Scytonema (Cyanobacteria) and associated saxitoxins in the littoral zone of recreational lakes in Canterbury, New Zealand. Phycologia 51: 542-551., Mohamed and Al-Shehri 2013Mohamed ZA and Al-Shehri AM. 2013. Assessment of cylindrospermopsin toxin in an arid Saudi lake containing dense cyanobacterial bloom. Environ Monit Assess 185: 2157-2166.). With regard to Brazil, the observation of toxins from cyanobacteria in water intended for public drinking supply has been recorded in several regions, particularly in the south and the northeast (Molica et al. 2005Molica RJR, Oliveira EJA, Carvalho PVVC, Costa ANSF, Cunha MCC, Melo GL and Azevedo SMFO. 2005. Occurrence of saxitoxins and an anatoxin-a(s)-like anticholinesterase in a Brazilian drinking water supply. Harmful Algae 4: 743-753., Anjos et al. 2006Anjos FM, Bittencourt-Oliveira MC, Zajac MP, Hiller S, Christian B, Erler K, Luckas B and Pinto E. 2006. Detection of harmful cyanobacteria and their toxins by both PCR amplification and LC-MS during a bloom event. Toxicon 48: 239-245., Costa et al. 2006Costa IAS, Azevedo SMFO, Senna PAC, Bernardo RR, Costa SM and Chellappa NT. 2006. Occurrence of toxin-producing cyanobacteria blooms in a Brazilian semiarid reservoir. Braz J Biol 66: 211-219., Sotero-Santos et al. 2006Sotero-Santos RB, Silva CRSE, Verani NF, Nonaka KO and Rocha O. 2006. Toxicity of a cyanobacteria bloom in Barra Bonita reservoir (Middle Tietê River, São Paulo, Brazil). Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 64: 163-170., 2008Sotero-Santos RB, Carvalho GE, Dellamano-Oliveira MJ and Rocha O. 2008. Occurrence and toxicity of an Anabaena bloom in a Tropical reservoir (Southeast Brazil). Harmful Algae 7: 590-598., Moschini-Carlos et al. 2009Moschini-Carlos V, Bortoli S, Pinto E, Nishimura PY, Freitas LG, Pompêo MLM and Dörr F. 2009. Cyanobacteria and cyanotoxin in the Billings reservoir (São Paulo, SP, Brazil). Limnetica 28: 273-282., Bittencourt-Oliveira et al. 2010Bittencourt-Oliveira MC, Santos DMS and Moura AN. 2010. Toxic cyanobacteria in reservoirs in Northeastern Brazil: detection using a molecular method. Braz J Biol 70: 1005-1010., 2012aBittencourt-Oliveira MC, Piccin-Santos V and Gouvêa-Barros S. 2012a. Microcystin-producing genotypes from cyanobacteria in Brazilian reservoirs. Environ Toxicol 27: 461-471.).

The monitoring relevance of cyanobacteria toxins in reservoirs for public supply is notorious. Brazil was the first country to enforce a specific legislation for the control of cyanobacteria and their toxins in water used for drinking supply (Brasil 2011BRASIL. 2011. Regulation MS N° 2914, “Guidelines for drinking Water Quality”, Official Law Report's, 12, December 2011.). Monitoring of reservoirs requires cell counting of potentially toxic cyanobacteria and toxin quantification (New Zealand, Ministry of Health 2008, Brasil 2011BRASIL. 2011. Regulation MS N° 2914, “Guidelines for drinking Water Quality”, Official Law Report's, 12, December 2011., NHMRC, NRMMC 2011NHMRC, NRMMC. 2011. Australian Drinking Water Guidelines Paper 6 National Water Quality Management Strategy. National Health and Medical Research Council, National Resource Management Ministerial Council, Common wealth of Australia, Canberra.).

The most recurrent toxins in Brazilian water bodies are the MCs. However, the recent record of CYN in three reservoirs for public supply in the northeast region alerted to the possibility that it could be spreading (Bittencourt-Oliveira et al. 2011aBittencourt-Oliveira MC, Piccin-Santos V, Kujbida P and Moura AN. 2011a. Cylindrospermopsin in water supply reservoirs in Brazil determined by immunochemical and molecular methods. J Water Resour Prot 3: 349-355.).

Reservoirs in Pernambuco state were designed to fulfill different roles and multiple uses which, to some extent, make management difficult and, at the same time, increase the instability of the aquatic biota. These issues demand frequent environmental studies, plus investigation on the cyanobacteria communities and, in particular, their toxins. The occurrence of cyanobacteria toxins in these reservoirs (northeastern Brazil) was already recorded by a few authors using different techniques (Bouvy et al. 1999Bouvy MA, Molica R, Oliveira S, Marinho M and Beker B. 1999. Dynamics of a toxic Cyanobacterial bloom (Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii) in a shallow reservoir in the Semi-Arid region of Northeast Brazil. Aquat Microb Ecol 20: 285-297., Molica et al. 2005Molica RJR, Oliveira EJA, Carvalho PVVC, Costa ANSF, Cunha MCC, Melo GL and Azevedo SMFO. 2005. Occurrence of saxitoxins and an anatoxin-a(s)-like anticholinesterase in a Brazilian drinking water supply. Harmful Algae 4: 743-753., Bittencourt-Oliveira et al. 2010Bittencourt-Oliveira MC, Santos DMS and Moura AN. 2010. Toxic cyanobacteria in reservoirs in Northeastern Brazil: detection using a molecular method. Braz J Biol 70: 1005-1010., 2011aBittencourt-Oliveira MC, Piccin-Santos V, Kujbida P and Moura AN. 2011a. Cylindrospermopsin in water supply reservoirs in Brazil determined by immunochemical and molecular methods. J Water Resour Prot 3: 349-355., 2012aBittencourt-Oliveira MC, Piccin-Santos V and Gouvêa-Barros S. 2012a. Microcystin-producing genotypes from cyanobacteria in Brazilian reservoirs. Environ Toxicol 27: 461-471.).

This study shows, for the first time, a wide and profound vision on the reservoirs in the northeastern region of Brazil with regard to cyanobacteria and their toxins. In addition to providing a glimpse of the current status for future research, this study can aid in comparative studies of diagnosis and monitoring, both on a regional and global scale, given the expansion of species of toxic cyanobacteria and their impact on the human population.

This study presents data gathered from 10 reservoirs of the state of Pernambuco, northeast of Brazil, destined for public drinking supply. The occurrence of MC and CYN, as well as the composition and quantification of the cyanobacteria community, is shown.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Studied Reservoirs and Samplings

The investigated reservoirs supply cities with high demographic densities. These reservoirs are located in regions where climates are warm but rain regimes can range from regular (Zona da Mata, Agreste) to sparse (Sertão, 37°C yearly average). Importance was given to reservoirs for public supply identified as those frequently having cyanobacteria blooms (Table I). The sampling sites were, preferentially, at the center of each reservoir.

TABLE I
Reservoirs, coordinates, use, phytogeographic region, water capacity (m3), maximum depth (m), target community and trophic state. S. Public Supply. W. Watering. F. Fishing. ND. No data.

Twenty three samples from 10 reservoirs in the state of Pernambuco (Table II) were collected, preferentially, in two different seasons, dry and rainy. Samples for cyanobacteria identification were gathered by surface dragging, using 20-µm mesh plankton net or a wide neck bottle in the case of high population density. Samples for quantification analyses were gathered using a van Dorn bottle in the subsurface (0.5 m).

TABLE II
Diversity, partial density (× 106cell.mL–1), total density (106cell.mL–1), partial biomass (mg.L–1) and total biomass of cyanobacteria in samples investigated. (%). Corresponding percentages of cell.mL–1 or mg.L–1 of cyanobacteria. (n). average number of cells per organism. Concentrations of microcystins (MC) and cylindrospermopsin (CYN) (ng.g–1 freeze-dried cells) in the environmental samples obtained by ELISA (three replicates). SD. Standard deviations. (*). Abundant species (°). Dominant species. (s). straight, (c). coiled. (-) absent.

Identification and Evaluation of Density and Biomass

Cyanobacteria identification was carried out under a light microscope (Nikon YS100, Melville, NY, USA), and by comparison with specialized literature. Samples for density evaluation (cells.mL–1) were maintained in acetic Lugol's solution and settled in counting chamber according to Utermöhl (1958)Utermöhl H. 1958. Zur Vervollkommung der quantitativen phytoplanktonmethodik. Int Ver Theor Angew Limnol Verh 9: 1-38.. Densities were converted into biovolume following the procedure in Hillebrand et al. (1999)Hillebrand H, Dürselen C, Kirschtel D, Pollingher U and Zohary T. 1999. Biovolume calculation for pelagic and benthic microalgae. J Phycol 35: 403-424. and transformed into biomass, assuming a mass density of 1 mg.L–1 (Wetzel and Likens 2000Wetzel RG and Likens GE. 2000. Limnological analyses. New York: Springer Verlag, 3rd ed., 429 p.). Average values were used for biovolume measurement (n = 50, for abundant species andn = 10, for less frequent species). Abundance and dominance were evaluated according to Lobo and Leighton (1986)Lobo E and Leighton G. 1986. Estructuras comunitarias de las fitocenosis planctonicas de los sistemas de Desembocaduras de rios y esteros de la zona central de Chile. Rev Biol Mar 22: 1-29.. Abundant species were those with densities above the community average density, while dominant species were those with density surpassing 50% of the community total density.

Microcystin and Cylindrospermopsin Analysis by Immunoassay Method

Samples with approximately 20 L were collected, centrifuged, frozen in liquid nitrogen, and lyophilized. The lyophilized cells from environmental samples (∼10 mg) with 3 mL of Milli-Q water were disrupted by ultrasonication (Microson Ultrasonic Cell Disruptor, Misonix, USA) and used directly for analysis of MC and CYN. Toxin quantification was carried out using a commercial ELISA kit (Beacon Analytical Systems Inc., Portland, ME, USA), following the manufacturer's protocols. The high and low detection limits for MC and CYN by ELISA were 2.0 and 0.1 µg.L–1, respectively. Negative and positive controls for the ELISA analysis are included in the commercial kit. Triplicate analyses were performed and the values were averaged.

RESULTS

Occurrence of MC was found in all reservoirs (Table II). Only in one sample, out of 23 samples MC was absent (Ipojuca reservoir, 5/26/2010). It was found that in all samples cyanobacteria reported in literature as potentially toxin-producing (MC, CYN and SX), except forM. tenuissima. With respect to CYN, eight out of the 23 analyzed samples were positive in four reservoirs (Arcoverde, Duas Unas, Ipojuca, and Jucazinho). In these reservoirs MC and CYN were found simultaneously.

Diversity of cyanobacteria communities, their dominant and abundant taxa, densities and biomasses (total and partial), as well as the presence of MC and CYN in 23 samples were in the Table II. Cyanobacteria communities in the reservoirs were constituted, basically, byCylindrospermopsis raciborskii (Woloszynka) Seenayya & Subba Raju, Planktothrix agardhii (Gomont) Anagnostidis & Komárek, Sphaerospermopsis aphanizomenoides (Forti) Zapomělová, Jezberová, Hrouzek, Hizem, Reháková & Komárková andGeitlerinema amphibium (Gomont) Anagnostidis. C. raciborskii and P. agardhii were dominant and abundant in five reservoirs, which had MC or CYN. Planktothrix species (P. agardhii and P. isothrix (Skuja) Komárek & Komárková) were dominant in five reservoirs and were responsible for more than 50% of cyanobacteria total biomass. In addition, they were the highest occurring genus in blooms, followed by Microcystis panniformisKomárek et al. in four reservoirs. The species Planktothrix agardhii and Microcystis panniformis reached the highest densities, surpassing 107 cells.mL–1.Planktothrix agardhii, P. isothrix,Sphaerospermopsis aphanizomenoides, M. panniformis and Merismopedia tenuissima Lemmermann constituted monospecific blooms, accounted for up to 85% of cyanobacteria total biomass in the sample (Table II).

Generally speaking, there was no correlation between dry and rainy seasons, increase or decrease of superficial cyanobacteria biomasses or densities, in the reservoirs.

DISCUSSION

Cyanotoxins were found in 100% of the set of reservoirs (ten), where MCs were detected in 95.65% of the samples investigated for MC and CYN.

Early reports showed that toxic cyanobacteria have dominated in warmer waters of the tropics and subtropics. Within the regions with tropical and sub-tropical climates, Australia shows some similarity to the northeast of Brazil, due to its area, its many reservoirs, shallows, rivers and, mainly, its historical records of frequent blooms of toxic cyanobacteria (Burford et al. 2007Burford MA, Johnson SA, Cook AJ, Packer TV, Taylor BM and Townsley ER. 2007. Correlations between watershed and reservoir characteristics, and algal blooms in subtropical reservoirs. Water Res 41: 4105-4114., Burford and Davis 2011Burford MA and Davis TW. 2011. Physical and chemical processes promoting dominance of the toxic cyanobacterium Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii. Chinese J Oceanol Limnol 29: 883-891.). Toxin production records are common in Brazil and Australia, and is less in other areas of the world (Fastner et al. 2003Fastner J, Heinze R, Humpage AR, Mischke U, Eaglesham GK and Chorus I. 2003. Cylindrospermopsis occurrence in two German lakes and preliminary assessment of toxicity and toxin production of Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii (Cyanobacteria) isolates. Toxicon 42: 313-321., Saker et al. 2003Saker ML, Nogueira ICG, Vasconcelos VM, Neilan BA, Eaglesham GK and Pereira P. 2003. First report and toxicological assessment of the cyanobacterium Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii from Portuguese freshwaters. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 55: 243-250., Burford and Davis 2011Burford MA and Davis TW. 2011. Physical and chemical processes promoting dominance of the toxic cyanobacterium Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii. Chinese J Oceanol Limnol 29: 883-891.).

Brazil has a history of contamination of freshwater systems by cyanotoxins (Teixeira et al. 1993Teixeira MGLC, Costa MCN, Carvalho VLP, Pereira MS and Hage E. 1993. Gastroenteritis epidemic in the area of the Itaparica, Bahia, Brazil. Bull Pan Am Health Organ 27: 244-253., Jochimsen et al. 1998). Over the last ten years, there have been frequent records of cyanobacteria blooms in reservoirs throughout the country (Anjos et al. 2006Anjos FM, Bittencourt-Oliveira MC, Zajac MP, Hiller S, Christian B, Erler K, Luckas B and Pinto E. 2006. Detection of harmful cyanobacteria and their toxins by both PCR amplification and LC-MS during a bloom event. Toxicon 48: 239-245., Costa et al. 2006Costa IAS, Azevedo SMFO, Senna PAC, Bernardo RR, Costa SM and Chellappa NT. 2006. Occurrence of toxin-producing cyanobacteria blooms in a Brazilian semiarid reservoir. Braz J Biol 66: 211-219., Chellappa et al. 2008Chellappa NT, Borba JM and Rocha O. 2008. Phytoplankton community and physical-chemical characteristics of water in the public reservoir of Cruzeta, RN, Brazil. Braz J Biol 68: 477-494., Dantas et al. 2011Dantas EW, Moura AN and Bittencourt-Oliveira MC. 2011. Cyanobacterial blooms in stratified and destratified eutrophic reservoirs in semi-arid region of Brazil. An Acad Bras Cienc 83: 1327-1338., Bittencourt-Oliveira et al. 2011aBittencourt-Oliveira MC, Piccin-Santos V, Kujbida P and Moura AN. 2011a. Cylindrospermopsin in water supply reservoirs in Brazil determined by immunochemical and molecular methods. J Water Resour Prot 3: 349-355., bBittencourt-Oliveira MC, Moura AN, Hereman TC and Dantas EW. 2011b. Increase in straight and coiled Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii (Cyanobacteria) populations under conditions of thermal de-stratification in a shallow tropical reservoir. J Water Resour Prot 3: 245-252., 2012aBittencourt-Oliveira MC, Piccin-Santos V and Gouvêa-Barros S. 2012a. Microcystin-producing genotypes from cyanobacteria in Brazilian reservoirs. Environ Toxicol 27: 461-471., Piccin-Santos and Bittencourt-Oliveira 2012Piccin-Santos V and Bittencourt-Oliveira MC. 2012. Toxic cyanobacteria in four Brazilian water supply reservoirs. J Environ Prot 3: 68-73.).

In spite of monospecific bloom occurrences in the reservoirs of Ingazeira, Jucazinho, Mundaú and Tapacurá, those blooms constituted by more than one species were the most frequent. Costa et al. (2006)Costa IAS, Azevedo SMFO, Senna PAC, Bernardo RR, Costa SM and Chellappa NT. 2006. Occurrence of toxin-producing cyanobacteria blooms in a Brazilian semiarid reservoir. Braz J Biol 66: 211-219., Bittencourt-Oliveira et al. (2011aBittencourt-Oliveira MC, Piccin-Santos V, Kujbida P and Moura AN. 2011a. Cylindrospermopsin in water supply reservoirs in Brazil determined by immunochemical and molecular methods. J Water Resour Prot 3: 349-355., 2012b)Bittencourt-Oliveira MC, Dias SN, Moura AN, Cordeiro-Araújo MK and Dantas EW. 2012b. Seasonal dynamics of cyanobacteria in a eutrophic reservoir (Arcoverde) in the semi-arid region of Brazil. Braz J Biol 72: 533-544., Moura et al. (2011)Moura AN, Dantas EW, Oliveira HSB and Bittencourt-Oliveira MC. 2011. Vertical and temporal dynamics of cyanobacteria in the Carpina potable water reservoir in Northeastern Brazil. Braz J Biol 71: 451-459., and Lira et al. (2011)Lira GAST, Araújo EL, Bittencourt-Oliveira MC and Moura AN. 2011. Phytoplankton abundance, dominance and coexistence in an eutrophic reservoir in the state of Pernambuco, Northeast Brazil. An Acad Bras Cienc 83: 1313-1326. reported multi-species blooms of cyanobacteria constituted mostly by the genera Planktothrix andCylindrospermopsis, with possible alternation of predominance according to the climate conditions.

Apart from high temperatures, blooms in the northeast of Brazil are also enhanced by the hydric regime characterized by long and accentuated dry periods and by the length of time that the water remains in the reservoirs. Conditions associated with dry and rainy seasons, such as stratification and de-stratification of water bodies, as well as water turbidity, are appointed as favoring factors, allowing the establishment of other species with high population densities and forming multi-species blooms of cyanobacteria (Dantas et al. 2011Dantas EW, Moura AN and Bittencourt-Oliveira MC. 2011. Cyanobacterial blooms in stratified and destratified eutrophic reservoirs in semi-arid region of Brazil. An Acad Bras Cienc 83: 1327-1338., Bittencourt-Oliveira et al. 2012bBittencourt-Oliveira MC, Dias SN, Moura AN, Cordeiro-Araújo MK and Dantas EW. 2012b. Seasonal dynamics of cyanobacteria in a eutrophic reservoir (Arcoverde) in the semi-arid region of Brazil. Braz J Biol 72: 533-544.). Bittencourt-Oliveira et al. (2012b)Bittencourt-Oliveira MC, Dias SN, Moura AN, Cordeiro-Araújo MK and Dantas EW. 2012b. Seasonal dynamics of cyanobacteria in a eutrophic reservoir (Arcoverde) in the semi-arid region of Brazil. Braz J Biol 72: 533-544. observed in the Arcoverde reservoir an overwhelming increase of C. raciborskii populations during the dry season (destratification), characterized by thermally stratified water where, in the rainy season, the cyanobacteria biomass dropped substantially due to the presence of other cyanobacteria in the community. These authors pointed out that species being favored by stratification cannot be considered a rule because in other reservoirs in the same region the population density of C. raciborskii increased all through the thermal de-stratification. These differences in the behavior of populations of cyanobacteria, particularly of C. raciborskii, also vary between Brazilian and Australian water bodies (Hawkins and Grifftiths 1993,Bittencourt-Oliveira et al. 2011bBittencourt-Oliveira MC, Moura AN, Hereman TC and Dantas EW. 2011b. Increase in straight and coiled Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii (Cyanobacteria) populations under conditions of thermal de-stratification in a shallow tropical reservoir. J Water Resour Prot 3: 245-252.).

In all samples with MCs, potentially toxic cyanobacteria were found, as described in the literature. The single exception of nontoxic cyanobacterium wasM. tenuissima in the Venturosa reservoir (10.13.2009), even in high densities. Despite the high cellular density, the biomass was low (19.05 mg.L–1). Picoplanktonic cyanobacteria, such asAphanocapsa cumulus Komárek & Cronberg (Domingos et al. 1999Domingos P, Rubim TK, Molica RJR, Azevedo SMFO and Carmichael WW. 1999. First report of microcystin production by picoplanktonic cyanobacteria isolated from a northeast Brazilian drinking water supply. Environ Toxicol 14: 31-35.) andEpigloeosphaera brasilica Azevedo et al. (Bittencourt-Oliveira et al. 2012aBittencourt-Oliveira MC, Piccin-Santos V and Gouvêa-Barros S. 2012a. Microcystin-producing genotypes from cyanobacteria in Brazilian reservoirs. Environ Toxicol 27: 461-471.), were already reported in Brazil as toxin-producing. It should be emphasized that no cyanobacteria have to be discarded with respect to toxin production.

Diversity of the cyanobacteria community, mainly constituted by toxin-producing species (Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii,Planktohrix agardhii, Sphaerospermopsis aphanizomenoides and Geitlerinema amphibium), was similar in all reservoirs, except for Merismopedia tenuissima(Venturosa reservoir). Such homogeneity of cyanobacteria communities in reservoirs of the state of Pernambuco corroborate previous studies (Bouvy et al. 2000Bouvy MA, Falcão D, Marinho M, Pagano M and Moura AN. 2000. Occurrence of Cylindrospermopsis (Cyanobacteria) in 39 Brazilian tropical reservoirs during the 1998 drought. Aquat Microb Ecol 23: 13-27., 2003Bouvy MA, Nascimento SM, Molica RJR and Ferreira A. 2003. Limnological features in Tapacurá reservoir (northeast Brazil) during a severe drought. Hydrobiologia 493: 115-130.,Dantas et al. 2011Dantas EW, Moura AN and Bittencourt-Oliveira MC. 2011. Cyanobacterial blooms in stratified and destratified eutrophic reservoirs in semi-arid region of Brazil. An Acad Bras Cienc 83: 1327-1338., Lira et al. 2011Lira GAST, Araújo EL, Bittencourt-Oliveira MC and Moura AN. 2011. Phytoplankton abundance, dominance and coexistence in an eutrophic reservoir in the state of Pernambuco, Northeast Brazil. An Acad Bras Cienc 83: 1313-1326., Moura et al. 2011Moura AN, Dantas EW, Oliveira HSB and Bittencourt-Oliveira MC. 2011. Vertical and temporal dynamics of cyanobacteria in the Carpina potable water reservoir in Northeastern Brazil. Braz J Biol 71: 451-459., Bittencourt-Oliveira et al. 2011aBittencourt-Oliveira MC, Piccin-Santos V, Kujbida P and Moura AN. 2011a. Cylindrospermopsin in water supply reservoirs in Brazil determined by immunochemical and molecular methods. J Water Resour Prot 3: 349-355., bBittencourt-Oliveira MC, Moura AN, Hereman TC and Dantas EW. 2011b. Increase in straight and coiled Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii (Cyanobacteria) populations under conditions of thermal de-stratification in a shallow tropical reservoir. J Water Resour Prot 3: 245-252., 2012aBittencourt-Oliveira MC, Piccin-Santos V and Gouvêa-Barros S. 2012a. Microcystin-producing genotypes from cyanobacteria in Brazilian reservoirs. Environ Toxicol 27: 461-471.).

In the studied Brazilian reservoirs, C. raciborskiishared dominance with species of Planktothrix, whereas P. agardhii and P. isothrix formed monospecific blooms which accounted for up to 85% of the total cyanobacteria biomass in the sample (Table II).Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii, Sphaerospermopsis aphanizomenoides previously enominated Aphanizomenon aphanizomenoides (Zapomělová et al. 2009ZapomĚlová E, Jezberová J, Hrouzek P, Hisem D, Reháková K and Komárková J. 2009. Polyphasic characterization of three strains of Anabaena reniformis and Aphanizomenon aphanizomenoides (cyanobacteria) and their reclassification to Sphaerospermum gen. nov. (incl. Anabaena kisseleviana). J Phycol 45: 1363-1373., 2010ZapomĚlová E, Jezberová J, Hrouzek P, Hisem D, Reháková K and Komárková J. 2010. Polyphasic characterization of three strains of Anabaena reniformis and Aphanizomenon aphanizomenoides (cyanobacteria) and their reclassification to Sphaerospermum Gen. Nov. (incl. Anabaena kisseleviana). J Phycol 46: 415.), G. amphibium, Microcystis andPlanktothrix species are potentially microcystin, cylindrospermopsin and saxitoxin-producing. On the other hand, of the mentioned species, only C. raciborskii (Ohtani et al. 1992Ohtani I, Moore RE and Runnegar MTC. 1992. Cylindrospermopsin, a potent hepatotoxin from the blue-green-alga Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii. J Am Chem Soc 114: 7941-7942., Li et al. 2001Li R, Carmichael WW, Brittain S, Eaglesham GK, Shaw GR, Mahakhant A, Noparatnaraporn N, Yongmanitchai W, Kaya K and Watanabe MM. 2001. Isolation and identification of the cyanotoxin cylindrospermopsin and deoxy-cylindrospermopsin from a Thailand strain of Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii (Cyanobacteria). Toxicon 39: 973-980.) and species of the genus Sphaerospermopsis(Aphanizomenon spp.) (Preußel et al. 2006, Yilmaz et al. 2008Yilmaz M, Philips EJ, Szabo NJ and Badylak S. 2008. A comparative study of Florida strains of Cylindrospermopsis and Aphanizomenon for cylindrospermopsin production. Toxicon 51: 130-139.) have been described as producers of CYN.

Although populations of C. raciborskii andAphanizomenon/Sphaerospermopsis spp. are common in the country, the toxin CYN was found only recently in Brazil (Bittencourt-Oliveira et al. 2011aBittencourt-Oliveira MC, Piccin-Santos V, Kujbida P and Moura AN. 2011a. Cylindrospermopsin in water supply reservoirs in Brazil determined by immunochemical and molecular methods. J Water Resour Prot 3: 349-355.). However, even though CYN occurs in reservoirs with high densities of C. raciborskii andSphaerospermopsis no CYN-producing strain has been isolated in order to verify which species was responsible for producing this toxin. In Brazil no strain was reported as CYN-producing.

The Jucazinho reservoir had the greatest concentrations of CYN, associated with a high biomass of Planktothrix agardhii,Sphaerospermopsis aphanizomenoides and Geitlerinema amphibium. P. agardhii was the predominant species in three out of four samples in this reservoir, with total cyanobacteria biomass ranging from 30.73 to 80.13%, but there were no reports of an association with CYN production.

The sample from the Arcoverde reservoir taken on May 12, 2009 was the only one with an expressive predominance of C. raciborskii and also had the lowest concentrations of CYN (33.3 ng. g–1 freeze-dried cells). Therefore, biomass and density values of MC and CYN-producing cyanobacteria were not proportional to the concentrations of the measured toxins. This fact was already reported in previous studies undertaken in the reservoirs of the region (Piccin-Santos and Bittencourt-Oliveira 2012Piccin-Santos V and Bittencourt-Oliveira MC. 2012. Toxic cyanobacteria in four Brazilian water supply reservoirs. J Environ Prot 3: 68-73.).

CONCLUSION

The similarity of cyanobacteria communities in the investigated reservoirs, associated with both the occurrence of MC and CYN and adequate environmental conditions, favors geographic spreading of toxic blooms in the region. This circumstance emphasizes the need for increased monitoring of MC and CYN in drinking supply reservoirs in Brazil.

This research was supported by grants from Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq Proc. 576890/2008-1 and 301739/2011-0).

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Publication Dates

  • Publication in this collection
    10 Dec 2013
  • Date of issue
    Mar 2014

History

  • Received
    10 Sept 2012
  • Accepted
    8 May 2013
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